(強いAI)技術的特異点/(世界加速) 23

1 ：YAMAGUTIseisei~転：2015/12/06(日) 21:01:01.47 ID:LsV4EL1p.net

2045年頃に現人類を越える知性により技術的特異点(シンギュラリティ)を迎えると予測されています。
どんな世界が構築されるのか？技術的だけでなく社会的、文化的な側面は？
人間はどうなるのか？価値観は？
あるいはそもそも起こり得るのか？
そんなことなんかを驚異的技術を念頭に話しあってみるスレ。
※ 未来予測的中目的のスレではありませんので様々なシナリオを想定しています

■　技術的特異点
　収穫加速の法則とコンピュータの成長率に基づいて予測された、生物的制約から開放された知能(機械ベース・機械で拡張)が生み出す、具体的予測困難な時代。
　http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%80%E8%A1%93%E7%9A%84%E7%89%B9%E7%95%B0%E7%82%B9

■　収穫加速の法則
　進歩のペースがどんどん早くなるという統計的法則。ここでの進歩とは、技術的進歩だけでなく生物的進化、生化学的秩序形成も含む。
　http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%8E%E7%A9%AB%E5%8A%A0%E9%80%9F%E3%81%AE%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87

■　技術背景まとめ
特別無償公開された「三橋×齊藤 対談」の一部 ( 全編視聴案内あり )
http://m.youtube.com/?v=Dv3ZblXhAdk

716 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/08/11(日) 18:08:17.27 ID:TqTByUJCx

Figure 5:
Visualization of the attention distributions, when encoding the question: “Where is Mary?”.
An example from tasks 2: (requiring two supportive facts to solve)
Story:
Sandra journeyed to the hallway.
Mary went to the bathroom.
Mary took the apple there.
Mary dropped the apple.
Query:
Where is the apple?
Model’s output:
bathroom
(a) Step 1 (b) Step 2 (c) Step 3 (d) Step 4

Figure 6:
Visualization of the attention distributions, when encoding the question: “Where is the apple?”.
An example from tasks 2: (requiring two supportive facts to solve)
Story:
John went to the hallway.
John went back to the bathroom.
John grabbed the milk there.
Sandra went back to the office.
Sandra journeyed to the kitchen.
Sandra got the apple there.
Sandra dropped the apple there.
John dropped the milk.
Query:
Where is the milk?
Model’s output:
bathroom
(a) Step 1 (b) Step 2 (c) Step 3 (d) Step 4

717 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/08/11(日) 18:08:49.22 ID:TqTByUJCx

Figure 7:
Visualization of the attention distributions, when encoding the question: “Where is the milk?”.
An example from tasks 3: (requiring three supportive facts to solve)
Story:
Mary got the milk.
John moved to the bedroom.
Daniel journeyed to the office.
John grabbed the apple there.
John got the football.
John journeyed to the garden.
Mary left the milk.
John left the football.
Daniel moved to the garden.
Daniel grabbed the football.
Mary moved to the hallway.
Mary went to the kitchen.
John put down the apple there.
John picked up the apple.
Sandra moved to the hallway.
Daniel left the football there.
Daniel took the football.
John travelled to the kitchen.
Daniel dropped the football.
John dropped the apple.
John grabbed the apple.
John went to the office.
Sandra went back to the bedroom.
Sandra took the milk.
John journeyed to the bathroom.
John travelled to the office.
Sandra left the milk.
Mary went to the bedroom.

718 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/08/11(日) 18:09:46.92 ID:TqTByUJCx

Mary moved to the office.
John travelled to the hallway.
Sandra moved to the garden.
Mary moved to the kitchen.
Daniel took the football.
Mary journeyed to the bedroom.
Mary grabbed the milk there.
Mary discarded the milk.
John went to the garden.
John discarded the apple there.
Query:
Where was the apple before the bathroom?
Model’s output:
office
(a) Step 1
(b) Step 2
(c) Step 3
(d) Step 4

Figure 8:
Visualization of the attention distributions, when encoding the question: “Where was the apple before the bathroom?”.
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719 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/08/13(火) 23:49:09.65 ID:RM77FnSdS

>>685
A key consideration in learning algorithms is the issue of generalization, or the ability to robustly deal with novel patterns.

720 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/08/14(水) 12:18:05.06 ID:SHJkZmNqv

>>686
Each distal segment contains a number of synapses, representing lateral connections from a subset of the other NM - 1 cells.

721 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/12/01(日) 01:14:16.63 ID:jGtwQP38C

http://www.expedient.com/blog/what-are-the-differences-between-backups-and-disaster-recovery/
What Are the Differences Between Backups and Disaster Recovery?

Author:
Erin Masterson
Category:
Disaster Recovery, Data Centers, Infrastructure Availability

Disaster recovery planning is an integral part of any business’s IT strategy, and is becoming more prevalent as security breaches and network outages have become common threats, and the cost of downtime has steadily increased.

In the beginning stages of disaster recovery planning, decision makers are often mistaken about what constitutes a disaster recovery plan.
Many times they are misled by the idea that data backup is sufficient precaution in the event of a disaster.

“Customers often come to us seeking disaster recovery services without realizing that simply backing up their data is not enough,” says Joe Palian, Regional Account Executive at Expedient.

While having a backup strategy is important, it is not the same as a disaster recovery strategy; rather, the beginning stages of establishing a proper DR plan.
A backup is a copy of your data; a disaster recovery plan is insurance that guarantees its recovery.

So, what makes backups and disaster recovery different?

722 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/12/01(日) 01:14:54.79 ID:jGtwQP38C

1.)
Data retention requirements
Backups are typically performed on a daily basis to ensure necessary data retention at a single location, for the single purpose of copying data.

Disaster recovery requires the determination of the RTO (recovery time objective) in order to designate the maximum amount of time the business can be without IT systems post-disaster.
Traditionally, the ability to meet a given RTO requires at least one duplicate of the IT infrastructure in a secondary location to allow for replication between the production and DR site.
2.)
Recovery ability
Disaster recovery is the process of failing over your primary environment to an alternate environment that is capable of sustaining your business continuity.

Backups are useful for immediate access in the event of the need to restore a document, but does not facilitate the failover of your total environment should your infrastructure become compromised.
They also do not include the physical resources required to bring them online.

723 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/12/01(日) 01:15:31.35 ID:jGtwQP38C

3.)
Additional resource needs
A backup is simply a copy of data intended to be restored to the original source.

DR requires a separate production environment where the data can live.
All aspects of the current environment should be considered, including physical resources, software, connectivity and security.
4.)
Planning process
Planning a backup routine is relatively simple, since typically the only goals are to meet the RPO (recovery point objective) and data retention requirements.

A complete disaster recovery strategy requires additional planning, including determining which systems are considered mission critical, creating a recovery order and communication process, and most importantly, a way to perform a valid test.

The overall benefits and importance of a DR plan are to mitigate risk and downtime, maintain compliance and avoid outages.
Backups serve a simpler purpose.
Make sure you know which solution makes sense for your business needs.

Looking to improve your DR preparedness? Follow these 6 Steps.

Have any questions for Erin Masterson?

724 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/12/01(日) 01:16:00.97 ID:jGtwQP38C

the cost of downtime
https://thecloudcalculator.com/calculators/cost-of-downtime/
often mistaken about what constitutes a disaster recovery plan
https://www.expedient.com/blog/the-differences-between-backups-and-disaster-recovery/
a disaster recovery strategy
https://www.expedient.com/blog/what-steps-have-you-left-out-of-your-dr-strategy/
Disaster recovery
https://www.expedient.com/services/managed-services/disaster-recovery/
the failover of your total environment
https://www.expedient.com/blog/expedient-push-button-dr-zertocon2018/
a way to perform a valid test
https://www.expedient.com/blog/with-push-button-dr-disaster-recovery-testing-doesnt-have-to-be-a-four-letter-word/
Follow these 6 Steps
http://bit.ly/1SFm5yp

IT Disaster Recovery Planning: What Hurricane Season Can Teach Los Angeles Companies
IT Disaster Recovery Planning:
What Hurricane Season Can Teach Los Angeles Companies
http://sugarshot.io/it-disaster-recovery-planning-what-hurricane-season-can-teach-los-angeles-companies/

725 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2019/12/08(日) 21:27:02.54 ID:a72oztLlg

>>721
Customers often come to us seeking disaster recovery services without realizing that simply backing up their data is not enough.

>>724
http://j.mp/1SFm5yp+# http://go.expedient.com/l/12902/2016-04-01/2c35f5/12902/127088/6_Steps_to_DR_Preparedness.pdf

726 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/03/18(水) 17:32:46.47 ID:jXSDxkt5c

http://pnas.org/content/early/2020/01/07/1910837117/# pnas.org/content/117/4/1853

A scalable pipeline for designing reconfigurable organisms
View ORCID ProfileSam Kriegman, Douglas Blackiston, Michael Levin, and Josh Bongard
PNAS first published January 13, 2020 http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910837117

Sam Kriegman
aDepartment of Computer Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405;

Douglas Blackiston
bDepartment of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02153;cAllen Discovery Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02153;

Michael Levin
bDepartment of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02153;cAllen Discovery Center, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02153;dWyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02115

Josh Bongard
aDepartment of Computer Science, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405;


Phase offsets stored in the genotype were mutated by adding a number that was drawn randomly from a normal distribution with mean zero and SD s = 0.4π.

Also, contractile tissue incurs a much higher metabolic cost compared to nonmuscle tissue (the human heart consumes 1 mM ATP per second; ref. 31 ).
Also, contractile tissue incurs a much higher metabolic cost compared to nonmuscle tissue (the human heart consumes ∝1 mM ATP per second; ref. 31 ).

727 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 14:34:40.36 ID:juW0pBg5d

Memory & Cognition
1974, Vol. 2, No. 3, 467-471


The influence of one memory retrieval on a subsequent memory retrieval *

GEOFFREY R. LOFTUS and ELIZABETH F. LOFTUS
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195

*Requests for reprints may be sent to either Loftus, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195.
The research was supported by a National Institute of Mental Health grant to E. Loftus and a National Science Foundation grant to G. Loftus.
Appreciation is expressed to Thomas 0. Nelson for his comments on the manuscript.


Ss produced an instance of a category and following zero or two intervening items produced a second instance of the same category.
The second instance was produced more quickly than the initial instance.
This finding, in conjunction with other data reported in the paper, indicate that the reduction in latency for the second instance is due mostly to a reduction in the rate with which the category is searched.

728 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 14:35:58.23 ID:juW0pBg5d

In an experiment by Freedman and Loftus (1971), Ss were shown a noun category plus a restricting letter or adjective and were asked to name an instance of the category which began with the letter or which was characterized by the adjective.
Reaction time to produce the response was measured.
The data were discussed in terms of a model that postulated a hierarchical memory composed of noun categories (e.g., animals) with subsets (eg., birds, dogs) and supersets (e.g., living things) of each category.
Retrieval from this hierarchical structure was assumed to consist of at least two major steps: (1) entering the appropriate category and (2) searching the category for an appropriate member.
The times to execute Step 1 and Step 2 are hereafter denoted t1 and t2, respectively.
The duration of t1 was estimated to be about .25 sec by the following reasoning.
Ss saw stimuli presented with the category either first (e.g., fruit-P) or second (e.g., P-fruit) and with at least a 1/2-sec interval between the noun and restrictor.
Reaction times were measured from the presentation of the second member of the pair.
When the category came second, the total retrieval process began only after its presentation and included both t1 and t2, according to the model.
When the category came first, however, t1 could be completed before the restrictor was shown.
For example, given the stimulus fruit-P, the S could enter the category “fruits” during the interval.
Since measured reaction time begins when “P” is presented, measured reaction time excludes t1 in this case.
The decrease in reaction time when the category is shown first vs second can therefore be equated with t1, which is excluded in the former case and included in the latter.

729 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 14:46:46.31 ID:juW0pBg5d

More recently, Loftus (1973) asked Ss to produce a member of a category and a short time later asked them to produce a different member of that category.
--
This was accomplished by showing a category-letter pair , which asked the S for an appropriate instance, then, following zero, or two intervening items, showing the same category paired with a different letter , which asked for a different instance.
This was accomplished by showing a AB pair (eg., cat-P), which asked the S for an appropriate instance, then, following zero, or two intervening items, showing the same BB paired with a different letter (e.g., cat-A), which asked for a different instance.
--
Interest centered around the question of whether the speed of retrieving the second instance of a category was affected by the retrieval of the first instance and/or the lag between the two retrievals.
The results indicated that response latency for the second instance was shorter than response latency for the first instance and increased monotonically with the number of intervening items.
For example, a S’s baseline time to name a fruit beginning with the letter “P” was 1.52 sec.
However, it took him 1.22 sec to produce the same response if he had named a different fruit on the previous trial and 1.29 sec to produce the response if he had named a different fruit two trials back.

The results of the Loftus (1973) study thus indicate that the process of retrieving information from a category facilitates a subsequent retrieval from that category.
However, in this experiment the S was presented with the category name and restricting letter simultaneously; retrieval time thus included both t1 and t2.
Consequently, the facilitation effect could have involved a reduction in t1 or t2 or both.
The present experiment is designed to distinguish among these three possibilities.

730 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:03:05.89 ID:juW0pBg5d

--
This was accomplished by showing a category-letter pair (eg., fruit-P), which asked the S for an appropriate instance, then, following zero, one, or two intervening items, showing the same category paired with a different letter (e.g., fruit-A),
which asked for a different instance.
--

In some conditions of the present experiment, an interval was inserted between the category name and the letter and the stimuli were presented either in the order category-letter or in the order letter-category
[as in the Freedman & Loftus (1971) study].
As noted above, this procedure allows an estimation of t1 .
Additionally in the present experiment, the S was required to name an instance of a category and shortly thereafter was asked to name a second instance of the category [as in the Loftus (1973) study].
This design is sufficient to determine the locus of the reduction in reaction time to name a second category instance.

Figure 1 shows three possible patterns of results.
Suppose first that only category entry time, t1, is reduced when a second category instance is produced.
In this case, the results shown in Fig.1a should obtain: the letter-category conditions (which include t1) should depend on the prior retrieval, whereas the category-letter conditions (which exclude t1) should not.


467


--
In some conditions of the present experiment, an interval was inserted between the category name and the letter and the stimuli were presented either in the order A in the order B [as in the Freedman & Loftus (1971) study].

731 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:04:33.20 ID:juW0pBg5d

468
LOFTUS AND LOFTUS


a

RT
* letter - category
* category - letter
0 2 initial
LAG


b

RT

0 2 initial
LAG


c

RT

0 2 initial
LAG


Fig.1.
Three possible patterns of results for the relationship between time and the number of intervening items (lag) between two appearances of a critical category.

732 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:05:17.20 ID:juW0pBg5d

Conversely, suppose that only category search time, t2, is reduced when the second category instance is produced.
Such a situation would lead to the results shown in Fig.1b.
Both the category-letter and the letter-category conditions include t2, so they should be affected equally by the initial retrieval.

The final possibility is that both t1 and t2 are reduced.
This situation would predict the results shown in Fig.1c.
Here, the category-letter condition (which includes t2 but not t1) should be affected by the initial retrieval, but the letter-category condition (which includes both t, and t2) should be affected to a greater degree.

METHOD

Subjects
Eighteen Ss from the New School for Social Research received $5 for their participation in two 1-h sessions, which occurred on 2 consecutive days.
No S had previously participated in a memory experiment.

Materials
Each stimulus was printed in block letters on a 5 x 8 in. index card.
A stimulus always consisted of a category name plus a letter (e.g., fruit-P).
Eighty critical category names were selected from the Battig and Montague (1969) and Shapiro and Palermo (1970) category norms.
Each of the category names was paired with two different letters.
If “dominance" is defined as the frequency with which a word is given as an exemplar of a category, then one of the twu category-letter stimuli will be referred to as more dominant than the other.

In addition to the 160 critical stimuli (80 categories each paired with two letters), 80 filler stimuli were used.
The filler stimuli also consisted of a category plus a letter.
Some of the filler categories were used only once; others appeared twice with two different letters.
Thus, each S saw 240 unique stimuli (80 critical categories, each paired with two letters, plus 80 filler stimuli).

733 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:05:56.33 ID:juW0pBg5d

Design
There were three within-S factors: order (category-letter vs letter-category), interval (simultaneous presentation of the stimuli vs 2.5-sec interval between the category name and the letter), and lag (Lag 0, Lag 2, and initial presentation).
These factors were combined factorially, thereby giving a 2 (orders) by 2 (intervals) by 3 (lags) by 18 (Ss) design.

Each S received a different permutation of the 240 items with the following restrictions:

(1)The initial presentation of a critical category-letter pair was followed after zero or two intervening filler items (i.e., at Lag 0 or at Lag 2) by the presentation of the same category paired with a different letter.
Each S received 40 stimuli presented at Lag 0 and 40 at Lag 2.

(2) On half of the trials, Ss saw the stimulus corresponding to the high dominant instance before seeing the stimulus corresponding to the low dominant instance.
For the remaining trials, the reverse arrangement held.
A given category was presented in the order dominant-nondominant for half the Ss and in the reverse order for the remaining half of the Ss.

734 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:06:41.90 ID:juW0pBg5d

Procedure
Each S was told that he would see items consisting of categories and letters and that he was to respond with a word in the category that began with the given letter.
He was given examples and told to respond as quickly as possible, but to avoid errors.

The S sat in front of a screen with a window covered by half-silvered glass.
An index card containing the stimulus was placed in a dark enclosure behind the minor and was presented by illuminating the enclosure.
A microphone was placed in front of the S, and he responded by speaking into it.

A trial consisted of the following:
(a) a card with the item printed in large type was placed in the darkened enclosure;
(b) the E said “ready” and pressed a button which illuminated the first member of the stimulus pair;
(c) either simultaneously or after a 2.5-sec interval, the second member of the pair was automatically illuminated and an electric timer started;
(d) the S’s verbal response activated a voice key that stopped the timer and temrinated the trial.
A warm-up period of 20 trials preceded the experimental trials each day.

735 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:07:21.47 ID:juW0pBg5d

RESULTS

Only correct responses (96%) to the critical stimuli were included in the following analyses.
Median latencies were obtained for each S’s responses in each of the 12 conditions.
For each condition, mean latencies were then obtained by averaging the medians from individual Ss; these means are plotted in Figs. 2 and 3.
Figure 2 shows the results when the 2.5-sec interval was inserted between the category and the letter.
In both the letter-category and category-letter conditions, a second instance of a category is produced faster than the first instance; furthermore, a second instance is produced faster at Lag 0 than at Lag 2.
Figure 3 indicates that the same pattern of results obtains when letter and noun are presented simultaneously.

A 2 (orders) by 2 (intervals) by 3 (lags) analysis of variance was done on the latency data.
Significant effects were found for lag [F(2,34) = 6.57, p < .05], category-letter order [F(1,17) = 14.71, p< .01],‘and interval [F(1,17) = 33.52, p <01].




THE INFLUENCE OF ONE MEMORY RETRIEVAL
469


None of the two-way or three-way interactions was significant (F < 1 for all cases).

736 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:11:11.69 ID:juW0pBg5d

DISCUSSION

Dependence of Memory Retrievals
A number of studies have indicated that the time to retrieve information from a semantic category is decreased if that category has been accessed a short time previously.
Collins and Quillian (1970), for example, have shown that the time required to answer such questions as “Is a canary a bird?” is decreased by as much as 600 msec if information about canaries has been accessed on the previous trial.
Using a somewhat different paradigm, Meyer and Schvaneveldt (Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971; Meyer, Schvaneveldt, & Ruddy, 1972', Schvaneveldt & Meyer, 1973; Meyer, 1973) have shown the same thing.
In these experiments, Ss were required to classify letter strings as words or nonwords.
The general finding was that the reaction time to classify a letter string as a word is faster if the S has just classified 3 semantically similar word as opposed to a semantically dissimilar word.
Thus, for example, the time it takes to classify “butter” as a word is faster if “butter” is preceded by “bread” than if it is preceded by “nurse.”

Two general classes of models have been proposed to handle such results.
A location shifting model (Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971) assumes that when a S has finished processing a member of a particular category
An activation model, on the other hand, assumes that when items in a category are processed, other items are “excited” or “activated” to the extent that they are semantically similar to the information being processed.
Two further assumptions are made: first (Warren, 1970) that activation decays away over time and second that activated items are more readily accessible than nonactivated items.

--
A location shifting model (1971) assumes that when a S has finished processing a member of a particular category and must then shift to begin processing a second category, the shift time is dependent upon the semantic distance between the two categories.

737 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:13:05.83 ID:juW0pBg5d

2.5 sec. inlerval

RT

1.90
: * Letter - Category
: * Category - Letter
1.60
1.50

0 2 Initial
LAG

Fig. 2.
Mean reaction time in seconds as a function of the number of intervening items (lag) between two appearances of a critical category. Items were presented with a 2.5-sec interval between the category and the letter.


simult.

RT

2.20
: * Letter - Category
: * Category - Letter
1.90
1.80

0 2 Initial
LAG

Fig. 3.
Mean reaction time in seconds as a function of the number of intervening items (lag) between two appearances of a critical category. The category and letter were presented simultaneously.

738 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:13:51.71 ID:juW0pBg5d

The results of the present experiment together with the data of Meyer et al (1972) and Loftus (1973) disconfirm the location shifting model and support the activation model.
All of these experiments involve the following sorts of comparisons.
Let T represent target information whose time to be processed is the dependent variable of interest.
Let R represent information which is semantically related to T, and finally let U1 and U2 represent information which is semantically unrelated to T.
Now consider three conditions:

Condition a: Process U1 ; Process U1 ; Process T.
Condition b: Process R ; Process U2 ; Process T.
Condition c: Process U1 ; Process R ; Process T.

The data show that T is processed fastest in Condition c, next fastest in Condition b, and slowest in Condition a.
Both the location shifting model and the activation model correctly predict that reaction time in Condition c would be faster than reaction time in Conditions a and b.
However, the predictions of the two models differ with regard to the relationship between Conditions a and b.
A location shifting model incorrectly predicts that reaction time would be the same for Conditions a and b, since in both cases the S is shifting from the unrelated category, U2 to T.
An activation model, on the other hand, correctly predicts the obtained pattern of results.
This is because in Condition b, T is assumed to have been activated by R, and this activation has not decayed by the time T is processed.
In Condition a, on the Other hand, T is not assumed to have been activated at all; therefore, time to process T would be longer.

Processing Stages
In the outset of this report, it was noted that the semantic retrieval model proposed by Freedman and Loftus (1971) postulates two major processing stages: entering a category (which takes time t1) and searching the category (which takes time t2).

739 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:14:42.33 ID:juW0pBg5d

470
LOFTUS AND LOFTUS


Table 1
Time Estimates (in Seconds) for Memory Retrieval Stages as a Function of Three Lag Conditions

Retrieval Stage
Lag Condition
Lag 0 Lag 2 Initial

t1
Category entry time
0.20 0.22 0.27

t2 + k
Category search time plus baseline
1.47 1.65 1.69

t3
Eye movement time
0.14 0.14 0.13

t4
Extra encoding time
0.21 0.16 0.22

740 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:15:16.58 ID:juW0pBg5d

Another stage, taking time k, is a baseline stage, involving response execution, etc.
Unfortunately, these stages are not sufficient to handle the data from the present experiment.
To see why this is so, consider the reaction times to initially access a category.
These reaction times fall into a 2 by 2 design with order (category-letter vs letter-category) and interval (2.5 sec vs simultaneous) as factors.
According to the Freedman-Loftus model, the processing times involved in initial access should be as follows:

Condition 1, category-letter; interval: RT1= t2 + k
Condition 2, letter-category; interval: RT2 = t1 + t2 + k
Condition 3, category-letter; simultaneous: RT3 = t1 + t2 + k
Condition 4, letter-category; simultaneous: RT4 = t1 + t2 + k

Thus reaction times for Conditions 2-4 should be equal to each other and should differ (by t1) from the reaction time to Condition 1.
However, the data indicate that all four reaction times differ from one another, thereby necessitating the postulation of additional processing stages.
First, in Condition 4, the predisposition to encode the category before the letter may conflict with normal left-to-right reading habits.
Thus, an additional eye fixation could sometimes occur in Condition4 relative to the other three conditions.
We shall label the time for this additional eye fixation t3.
Secondly, when category and letter are presented simultaneously (Conditions 3 and 4), reaction time must include the time to encode both stimuli.
With a 2.5-sec interval, on the other hand (Conditions 1 and 2), reaction time includes the time to encode only one of the two stimuli.
Let the extra encoding time required in Conditions 3 and 4 be designated by t4.

We are now in a position to include the two new stages in the four initial reaction times.

741 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:18:31.33 ID:juW0pBg5d

(1a) Category-letter; interval:
RT 1: t2 +k=1.69 sec
(1b) Letter-category; interval: RT2=t1+t2 +k=1.9ésec
(1c) Category-letter; simultaneous: RT3=t1 +152 +t4+k=2.18 sec
(1d) Letter-category; simultaneous: RT4 =t1 +132 +t3 +t4 +k=2.31 sec

By appropriate manipulations of Eqs. 1a-4a, we find that t1 = 0.27 sec (RT2 - RTI); (t2 + k) = 1.69 sec (RT1), t3 = 0.13 sec (RT4 - RT3); and t4 = 0.22 sec (RT3 - RT2 ).
The estimate of 0.27 sec for t1 (category entry time) coincides well with previous estimates obtained by Freedman and Loftus (1971) and Loftus and Freedman (1972).
The estimate of 0.22 sec for t4 (encoding time) is far greater than one would expect if “encoding” meant only the process of pattern-recognizing the visual stimulus (cf. Sperling, 1963, who estimated 10msec per item for the pattern-recognition process).
Thus the obtained estimate of 0.22 sec must include a great deal more processing, although it is impossible in the present experiment to determine what such encoding might consist of.
Finally, since an eye fixation usually lasts on the order of 200-300 msec, the estimate of 0.13 sec for t3 (extra fixation time) is somewhat less than one would expect.
A possible reason for this discrepancy is that additional eye fixations may not be made on all of the Condition 4 trials.
The notion of an extra eye fixation sometimes occurring in Condition 4 is, of course, easily testable.

One more parenthetical remark should be made.
As noted above, the interaction of interval time and category-letter order was not significant.
If the null hypothesis of no interaction is accepted, then inspection of Eqs. 1a-4a indicates that t1 = t3.
(This can be seen either by the fact that RT3 - RT1 = RT4 - RT2 or by the fact that RT2 - RT1 = RT4 - RT3, both of which are true under the null hypothesis.)
However, since nothing in the present experiment necessarily warrants acceptance of the null hypothesis, the equality of t1 and t3 should not be taken very seriously.

742 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:22:46.15 ID:juW0pBg5d

What Stage Does Activation Affect?
Using the logic outlined above, it is possible to obtain estimates of t1, (t2 + k), t3, and t4 for second category presentations at Lags 0 and 2.
These estimates, along with the estimates given above for initial presentation, are shown in Table 1.
The statistical analyses of the data indicate that the only parameter which reliably changes over lag condition is t2 + k.
If we make the reasonable assumption that k remains constant over lag conditions, then t2, the category search time, constitutes the locus of the activation effect.
This finding agrees with the conclusion of Meyer (1973, p.30), who noted that “The semantic distance between categories...may affect the search rate for the second category.”

The invariance of encoding time (t4) over lag condition is somewhat at odds with the finding of Meyer et al (1972, Experiment 3) that encoding time appears to be shortened by prior processing of semantically similar information.
The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear.
A possible explanation may lie in the fact that the processing delay between the two categories was much shorter in the Meyer et al experiment than in the present experiment,
and the activation decay function for encoding time may be different from the analogous decay function for search rate.




THE INFLUENCE OF ONE MEMORY RETRIEVAL
47l

--
A possible explanation may lie in the fact that the processing delay between the two categories was shorter than the present experiment,and the activation decay function for encoding time may be different from the analogous decay function for search rate

743 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/04/12(日) 15:24:16.79 ID:juW0pBg5d

REFERENCES

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Category norms for verbal items in 56 categories: A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms.
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(Received for publication September 17, 1973; revision accepted December 6, 1973.)

745 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/06/19(金) 20:32:52.46 ID:ZY15djw41

>>727-744
http://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/BF03196906
http://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03196906.pdf

　
>>732
If “dominance" is defined as the frequency with which a word is given as an exemplar of a category, then one of the two category-letter stimuli will be referred to as more dominant than the other.

>>741
By appropriate manipulations of Eqs 1a-4a, we find that t1 = 0.27 sec (RT2 - RTI); (t2 + k) = 1.69 sec (RT1), t3 = 0.13 sec (RT4 - RT3); and t4 = 0.22 sec (RT3 - RT2 ).

If the null hypothesis of no interaction is accepted, then inspection of Eqs 1a-4a indicates that t, = t3.

746 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 00:26:14.31 ID:STE/0glun

http://nature.com/articles/s41598-020-58831-9
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* Article
* Open Access
* Published: 25 February 2020

Memristive synapses connect brain and silicon spiking neurons

* Alexantrou Serb1,
* Andrea Corna2,
* Richard George3,
* Ali Khiat1,
* Federico Rocchi2,
* Marco Reato2,
* Marta Maschietto2,
* Christian Mayr3,
* Giacomo Indiveri ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7109-16894,
* Stefano Vassanelli ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0389-80232 &
* Themistoklis Prodromakis ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6267-69091

Scientific Reports volume 10, Article number: 2590 (2020) Cite this article
:
Subjects

* Bionanoelectronics
* Nanosensors

747 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 00:34:57.19 ID:STE/0glun

Memristors
The memristive synapse set-up consisted of an array of memristive devices positioned inside an ArC memristor characterisation and testing instrument33 (Supplementary Fig.5. http:www.arc-instruments.co.uk).
The instrument is controlled by a PC, which handles all the communications over UDP; all through a python-based user interface.
The software is configured to react to UDP packets carrying information about the firing of either artificial or biological neurons (who fired when).
Once a packet is received,
the ID of the neuron that emitted it and the time of spiking are both retrieved from the packet payload and the neural connectivity matrix is consulted in order to determine which neurons are pre- and which are post-synaptic to the firing cell.
Then, if the plasticity conditions are met, the ArC instrument applies programming pulses that cause the memristive synapses to change their resistive states.
Importantly, the set-up can control whether LTP- or LTD-type plasticity is to be applied in each case, but once the pulses have been applied it is the device responses that determine the magnitude of the plasticity.
Notably, resistivity transitions of the device are non-volatile, they hold over at least hours27 as also exemplified in our prototype experiment and are therefore fully compatible with typical LTP and LTD time scales of natural synapses.
The system is sustained by a specific methodology for handling timing within the overall network (Zurich, Southampton, Padova).
The set-up in Southampton being the node that links Zurich and Padova together, controls the overall handling of time.

--
Once a packet is received, the ID of the neuron that emitted it and the time of spiking are retrieved from the neural connectivity matrix (held at the Southampton set-up) is consulted
the ID of the neuron that emitted it and the time of spiking are both retrieved from the packet payload and the neural connectivity matrix (held at the Southampton set-up) is consulted

748 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 00:58:25.57 ID:STE/0glun

Under this system, one of the partners (in our case Zurich) is labelled as the “primary partner” and all timing information arriving from that partner is treated as a ground truth.
Every timing information sent by other partners then has to be related to this ground truth, for example if the primary partner says that neuron 12 fires a spike at time 305, then the secondary partner(s) is informed of this (through Southampton).
If then a neuron in the secondary partner set-up fires 5 time units (as measured by a wall-clock) after being informed of the firing of neuron 12, it emits a packet informing Southampton that e.g. neuron 55 fired at time 310.
This way the relative timing between spikes arriving from the primary partner and the spikes triggered by the secondary partner(s) in response is maintained despite any network delays.
The price is that if the secondary partners wish to communicate spikes to the primary partner, network delays for the entire round-trip are then burdening the secondary-to-primary pathway.
The details of timing control at each partner site are fairly complicated and constrained by the set-ups at each partner, but all timing information is eventually encoded in an “absolute time” record held at Southampton.
The rationale behind this design decision was to ensure that at least in the pathway from primary to secondary partner(s) timing control is sufficiently tight to sustain plasticity in the face of network delays.
Neuronal culture and electrophysiology
Embryonic (E18) rat hippocampal neurons were plated and cultured on the CMEA according to procedures described in detail in34.
Recordings were performed on 812 DIV neurons.
The experimental setup in UNIPD(Supplementary Fig.1)enabled UDP-triggered capacitive stimulation of neurons13 while simultaneously recording and communicating via UDP the occurrence of depolarisations that were measured by patch-clamp whole-cell recording

749 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 01:40:48.13 ID:STE/0glun

The CMEA (20 × 20 independent TiO2 capacitors, each one of area 50 × 50 μm2) was controlled by a dedicated stimulation board and all the connections to partners, Southampton and Zurich, were managed by a PC running a LabVIEW-based software
(National Instruments Corp, Austin, TX, USA).
The stimulation protocol was derived from13 and further optimized for non-invasive adjustable stimulation of the neurons.
In brief, capacitive stimulation was adjusted to the memristor’s resistance (i.e. the synaptor weight) by varying the repetition number of appropriate stimulation waveforms (Supplementary Fig.1).
Patch-Clamp recordings were performed in whole-cell current-clamp configuration using an Axopatch 200B amplifier ( USA) connected to the PC through a BNC-2110 Shielded Connector Block ( TX, USA) along with a PCI-6259 PCI Card ( TX, USA).
WinWCP (Strathclyde Electrophysiology Software, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK) was used for data acquisition.
Micropipettes were pulled from borosilicate glass capillaries (GB150T-10, Science Products GmbH, Hofheim, Germany) using a P-97 Flaming/Brown Micropipette Puller (Sutter Instruments Corp., Novato, CA, USA).
Intracellular pipette solution and extracellular solution used during the experiments were respectively (in mM): 6.0 KCl, 120 K gluconate, 10 HEPES, 3.0 EGTA, 5 MgATP, 20 Sucrose (K); 135.0 NaCl, 5.4 KCl, 1.0 MgCl2, 1.8 CaCl2, 10.0 Glucose, 5.0 HEPES (N).
Digitised recordings were analysed by a custom LabVIEW software running on the PC, allowing detection and discrimination of firing and EPSP activity through a thresholding approach.
All experiments were performed in accordance with the Italian and European legislation for the use of animals for scientific purposes and protocols approved by the ethical committee of the University of Padova and by the Italian Ministry of Health
(authorisation number 522/2018-PR).

--
Molecular Devices, USA
National Instruments Corp, Austin, TX, USA
adjusted to pH 7.3 with 1N KOH

750 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 01:44:33.73 ID:STE/0glun

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Download references
Author information
Affiliations

1.
Centre for Electronics Frontiers, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
* Alexantrou Serb
* , Ali Khiat
* & Themistoklis Prodromakis
2.
Biomedical Sciences and Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, 35131, Italy
* Andrea Corna
* , Federico Rocchi
* , Marco Reato
* , Marta Maschietto
* & Stefano Vassanelli
3.
Institute of Circuits and Systems, TU Dresden, Dresden, 01062, Germany
* Richard George
* & Christian Mayr
4.
Institute of Neuroinformatics, University of Zurich and ETH Zurich, Zurich, 8057, Switzerland
* Giacomo Indiveri

757 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 01:55:43.29 ID:STE/0glun

Contributions
The experiments were jointly conceived by T.P., S.V. and G.I., who share senior authorship.
The experiments were jointly designed and ran by A.S., A.C., R.G., who are acknowledged as shared first authors.
A.K. manufactured the memristive devices.
FR and MR assisted with the biological system set-up and operation.
MM cultured neurons on chips.
C.M. provided valuable feedback and guidance during the write-up of the paper.
The paper was jointly written by all co-authors.

Corresponding authors
Correspondence to Stefano Vassanelli or Themistoklis Prodromakis.

　
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758 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2020/08/28(金) 02:10:03.84 ID:STE/0glun

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Serb, A., Corna, A., George, R. et al. Memristive synapses connect brain and silicon spiking neurons. Sci Rep 10, 2590 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-58831-9
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* Accepted: 21 January 2020
* Published: 25 February 2020
* DOI: http://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-58831-9

　
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759 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2021/09/07(火) 11:21:59.91 ID:Sg5KSVwHZ

sage

760 ：オーバーテクナナシー：2021/09/14(火) 07:52:03.64 ID:lSdSBXgiV

UNIVERSAL TRANSFORMERS. Published as a conference paper at ICLR 2019. http://arxiv-vanity.com/papers/1807.03819v3#15/# http://arxiv.org/abs/1807.03819v3#15

Mostafa Dehghani* † Stephan Gouws* Oriol Vinyals
University of Amsterdam DeepMind DeepMind
dehghani@uva.nl sgouws@google.com vinyals@google.com

Jakob Uszkoreit ukasz Kaiser
Google Brain Google Brain
usz@google.com lukaszkaiser@google.com

D.4. LEARNING TO EXECUTE (LTE).
LTE is a set of tasks indicating the ability of a model to learn to execute computer programs and was proposed by Zaremba & Sutskever (2015).
These tasks include two subsets:
1) program evaluation tasks (program, control, and addition) that are designed to assess the ability of models for understanding numerical operations, if-statements, variable assignments, the compositionality of operations, and more, as well as
2) memorization tasks (copy, double, and reverse).

The difficulty of the program evaluation tasks is parameterized by their length and nesting.
The length parameter is the number of digits in the integers that appear in the programs (so the integers are chosen uniformly from [1, length]), and the nesting parameter is the number of times we are allowed to combine the operations with each other.
Higher values of nesting yield programs with deeper parse trees.
For instance, here is a program that is generated with length = 4 and nesting = 3.
Input:
j=8584
for x in range(8):
j+=920
b=(1500+j)
print((b+7567))
Target:
25011
1) program evaluation tasks (A) that are designed to assess the ability of models for understanding numerical operations, if-statements, variable assignments, the compositionality of operations, and more, as well as 2) memorization tasks (B).

761 ：オーバーテクナナシー：2021/09/14(火) 08:02:31.32 ID:lSdSBXgiV

>>760
ukasz Kaiser.

--
Input:
　　　　j=8584
　　　　for x in range(8):
　　　　 j+=920
　　　　b=(1500+j)
　　　　print((b+7567))
Target:
　　　　25011

762 ：YAMAGUTIseisei：2022/05/29(日) 03:53:57.30 ID:npUmdHxq/

http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:www.lst.ethz.ch/research/publications/WCSA_2008/WCSA_2008.pdf
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Page 1

　
CellVM: A Homogeneous Virtual Machine Runtime System for a Heterogeneous Single-Chip Multiprocessor

　
Albert Noll ETH Zurich albert.nollaTinf.ethz ch
Andreas Gal University of California, Irvine galATuci edu
Michael Franz University of California, Irvine franzATuci edu

　

The assign and method benchmark, on the other hand, include CellVM’s worst case scenario: synchronized methods and data structures.

Figure 4.
Performance evaluation of low-level VM operations.
Values are normalized to JamVM running on the PPE

763 ：オーバーテクナナシー：2023/05/17(水) 11:16:29.45 ID:O3RhOyekU

要するに少孑化対策ってのは本来て゛あれば孑なんか産んた゛ら遺棄罪て゛逮捕懲役にされるへ゛き貧乏人に孑を産ませようという遺棄の幇助だろ
男は６Ο代て゛も妊孕能あるか゛女はз○才て゛妊娠困難．ひと昔前なら女学校時代に孑を産んだり．許嫁か゛いたり．行き遅れとか言われたりと
女性の特性に合致した社會風土によって多くの孑が作られていたわけだが、そんな大事な時期を資本家階級の家畜にする目的て゛．洗脳して
竒妙な社会的圧迫を加えて子を産めなくしてるのか゛最大原因た゛ろうに更に子供手当た゛のと憲法の下の平等すら無視した社會的歪みを加えて
余裕か゛あるから孑を作るという真っ当な家庭の子か゛10万のiPhone(笑)とか持ってて．私は買ってもらえないから始まって，公明党斉藤鉄夫
国土破壞省によるクソ航空騷音に勉強妨害されて精神的圧迫されて、路上で幸せそうな親子に斬りつけた不幸ＪСみたいのを増やそうとか
奨学金カ゛─なんてミ二ハ゛ン飲洒運転して事故って死んて゛る某大生とか典型た゛か゛そいつらに遊ぶ金くれてやることに何の意味があるってんた゛か
やることなすことすべてか゛てめえの私利私欲のために賄賂癒着してる資本家階級の利益を追求してるた゛けなのか゛ハ゛レハ゛レて゛キモチワルイな

創価学會員は．何百万人も殺傷して損害を与えて私腹を肥やし続けて逮捕者まで出てる世界最悪の殺人腐敗組織公明党を
池田センセ━か゛囗をきけて容認するとか本気で思ってるとしたら侮辱にもほと゛か゛あるぞ！
https://i.imgur.com/hnli1ga.jpeg

764 ：オーバーテクナナシー：2023/07/31(月) 07:30:53.81 ID:b2DRs8Y/9

土砂崩れに洪水に灼熱地獄にと殺されまくって損害を受けてるやつらは．テ囗組織自民公明を恨んて゛憎んて゛呪って戦えよ，たた゛の自然災害て゛
運が惡かっただけとか思い込んでる能天氣な被災者に、憲法１３条２５条２９条と公然と違反しながら．カによる─方的な現状変更によって
都心まで数珠つなき゛て゛鉄道の３〇倍以上もの温室効果カ゛スをまき散らす斎藤鉄夫ら世界最悪の殺人テロ組織國土破壞省か゛ＪＡＬた゛のＡＮΑた゛の
クソアヰ又ト゛ゥた゛のテロリス├と天下り賄賂癒着して私利私欲のために莫大な温室効果ガスまき散らして気侯変動させて海水温上昇させて
かつてない量の水蒸氣を日本列島に供給させているのか゛原因て゛あって曰本と゛ころか世界中て゛災害連發、クソ航空機は核以上に廃絶すへ゛き絶対悪
という強い認識と行動を教えよう！自民公明に入れたバ力の家や農作物が流されて殺されて無━文になるのは当然の報いて゛望ましいことた゛が，
年々気候変動による被災地は国内て゛も拡大している中、次こそ殺されるという正しい理解とともにこの強盗殺人腐敗テ口政府に立ち向かおう！
破防法を適用すべきクソ航空関係者と國土破壊省のテ囗リストと゛もを皆殺しにすることは．正当防衛かつ緊急避難として合法かつ正当な権利な

創価学會員は．何百万人も殺傷して損害を与えて私腹を肥やし続けて逮捕者まて゛出てる世界最惡の殺人腐敗組織公明党を
池田センセ―が囗をきけて容認するとか本氣で思ってるとしたら侮辱にもほと゛があるそ゛！
ｈΤтρｓ：／／ｉ．ｉｍｇｕｒ、ｃοｍ／hnli1ga.jpeg

765 ：オーバーテクナナシー：2024/01/16(火) 18:40:25.80 ID:IM8+CJJfv

疲弊してるのは分からんでもないが大川原化工機社長の「できれば謝罪して欲しい』は残念だな
関東全域毎日グルク゛ル何台ものクソヘリ飛ばしまくって望遠カメラで女風呂やらのぞき見して遊び倒して莫大な温室効果ガスまき散らして
気侯変動させて洪水、土砂崩れ、暴風、熱中症，大雪にと災害連発させて住民の生命と財産を破壊して騒音まき散らして威カ業務妨害して
子の学習環境まで破壊しながら暇すき゛るしお前らとっとと犯罪おかせやと住民イライラ犯罪惹起してる上に捏造逮捕までするデタラメ腐敗集団
警視庁や東京地検、共謀した經産省の外道公務員個人に賠償金を求償するのは当然、しかも勾留中に死亡してんだから同じ期間勾留した上に
殺人罪適用して━生かけて償わせて害悪でしかない警視庁解体に向けて運動を繰り広げよう!
5億円もの裏金發覚した腐敗政党自民党は腐敗の隠蔽のために国民の血税をクソ公務員利権に費やしてきたツケが出てる現実を認識しろよ
公務員も原発も制御しきれる悪魔ではないわけだか゛自閉隊利権まで倍増させて、すでに傀儡状態だが名実ともに統治権まで奪われるわ
(ref.)　tＴрs://www.сall４.jp/info.php?tУpe=itｅms&id=I00０0０6２
ｔtPs：//hanｅda-project.jimdofree.com/ , Тtps：//flighＴ-route.com/
ＴTPs://n-souonhigaisosУoudan.amebaownd.ｃom/